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Tag: Pharaoh

  • Gods of Ancient Egypt: Thoth

    Gods of Ancient Egypt: Thoth

    An in-depth exploration of Thoth, the ancient Egyptian deity of wisdom, writing, and knowledge, detailing his attributes, representations, and significance in Egyptian culture.

    Thoth: The God of Wisdom and Writing ​

    Thoth, known as DHwty in ancient Egyptian, is the deity associated with intelligence, wisdom, and the written word. ​ He is revered as the patron of scribes and the embodiment of reasoning and logic.

    • Thoth is often depicted as an ibis or a baboon, symbolizing his connection to knowledge and the moon. ​
    • His name is derived from the Egyptian DHwty, meaning “He of the Ibis.” ​
    • Thoth was crucial in ancient Egyptian mythology, including creating the 365-day year. ​
    • He is associated with the judgment of the dead, recording the outcomes in the afterlife.
    • Thoth’s consorts include Seshat, the goddess of writing, and Ma’at, the goddess of truth and justice.

    Thoth’s Role in Funerary Practices

    In ancient Egyptian funerary customs, Thoth had significant responsibilities, ensuring safe passage to the afterlife. ​ His presence was invoked in various texts and rituals related to death and judgment.

    • In funerary texts, he is depicted as a protector of tombs and the dead, ensuring their safe journey in the afterlife. ​
    • Thoth is often mentioned in the “Utterances of Going Forth in the Day,” which guide the deceased through the afterlife.
    • He is responsible for recording the judgment of the deceased’s heart against the feather of Ma’at. ​
    • Thoth’s ibis amulets were commonly used in mummification practices.

    Festivals Celebrating Thoth

    Thoth was celebrated through various festivals that honored his contributions to wisdom and the lunar calendar. These festivals were integral to ancient Egypt’s religious and cultural practices.

    • The Festival of Thoth was marked by food and drink offerings, including a thousand beers and bread.
    • The month of Txy, associated with drunkenness, was dedicated to Thoth, highlighting his significance in the lunar calendar. ​
    • Specific days, such as Day 19, honored Thoth and Osiris, celebrating the cycle of death and rebirth.

    Thoth’s Influence on Pharaohs and Royalty

    Thoth had a profound influence on the pharaohs of ancient Egypt. He was often depicted in royal iconography and associated with their divine right to rule. His presence was essential in coronation rituals and royal decrees.

    • Pharaohs like Thutmose III and Amenhotep III had statues of Thoth erected in their honor.
    • Thoth is depicted in scenes where he bestows life and authority upon pharaohs during their coronation.
    • He is often shown alongside other deities, emphasizing his role in Egypt’s divine order and governance.

    Myths and Legends Involving Thoth

    Thoth is central to various myths that explain cosmic order, creation, and the relationship between gods and humanity. His stories illustrate the importance of wisdom and knowledge in maintaining balance in the universe.

    • In the Heliopolitan creation myth, Thoth establishes the 365-day calendar. ​
    • He is depicted as a mediator between gods, often resolving conflicts and restoring order.
    • Thoth’s interactions with other deities, such as Ra and Horus, highlight his significance in the pantheon and his role in the cosmic balance.

    Hermopolis Magna and the Ogdoad

    Hermopolis Magna, known as the “Place of Eight,” is the center of worship for the deity DHwty. It is associated with the creation myth involving the Ogdoad, a group of eight primordial deities. ​ These deities created the cosmic egg from which DHwty emerged, later becoming a significant figure in Egyptian mythology and cosmology. ​

    • DHwty is the lord of Hermopolis Magna, also called el-Ashmunein. ​
    • The Ogdoad consists of eight creator deities, four male and four female. ​
    • DHwty commanded the Ogdoad to create the cosmic egg, leading to the first sunrise. ​
    • Over time, imn-ra displaced DHwty in prominence, becoming the primary deity.

    Sumenu and the Temple of DHwty ​

    Sumenu, also known as Crocodopolis, features a temple dedicated to DHwty, alongside the crocodile god sbk-ra. ​ A notable statue of the Second Prophet of imn-ra, Ay, is inscribed with its dedication to this temple.

    • Sumenu is modern-day Al-Mahamid Qibly.
    • The temple was dedicated to DHwty and sbk-ra. ​
    • A statue of Ay, a high priest, is currently housed in the Brooklyn Museum.

    Dakka and the Kushite Temple

    In Dakka, a temple dedicated to DHwty was established during the Kushite Kingdom, initiated by King Arkamani and later expanded by Ptolemy IV. ​ This temple is associated with the jujube tree, symbolizing DHwty’s waiting for his wife’s return.

    • The temple was built in the third century BCE.
    • It was dedicated to the DHwty of pr-nbs and linked to the jujube tree. ​
    • The temple underwent expansions during the Roman period.

    Dakhla Oasis and DHwty’s Worship

    A temple of DHwty exists in the Dakhla Oasis, where Rameses VI is depicted praising DHwty. ​ This temple highlights the significance of DHwty in the region during the 19th dynasty. ​

    • The temple is located in the western desert st-wAH.
    • Rameses VI’s praises of DHwty are depicted in the temple. ​

    Memphite Theology and DHwty’s Role ​

    The Memphite Theology, inscribed on the Shabaka Stone, emphasizes DHwty’s integral role in creation alongside Ptah. ​ This text illustrates the connection between DHwty and the creation of all deities and spirits.

    • The Shabaka Stone is from the Great Temple of Ptah in Memphis. ​
    • It dates back to the 25th dynasty (744–656 BCE).
    • DHwty is depicted as a key figure in the creation narrative.

    Karnak and the Sacred Ished Tree ​

    At Karnak, DHwty is associated with the sacred iSd tree, which records the Pharaoh’s reign and deeds. ​ This connection underscores DHwty’s role in maintaining cosmic order and knowledge.

    • The iSd tree is considered sacred in ancient Egypt.
    • DHwty or his consort records Pharaoh’s achievements on its leaves. ​

    Cultural Significance of DHwty in Literature ​

    DHwty appears in various significant literary works, including the “Eloquent Peasant” and “Instruction of Amenemopet,” emphasizing his association with wisdom, justice, and moral conduct. ​

    • The “Eloquent Peasant” highlights the importance of mAat and DHwty’s role in justice.
    • “Instruction of Amenemopet” advises on ethical behavior and the consequences of wrongdoing.

    The Leiden Hymns and DHwty’s Wisdom ​

    The Leiden hymns, dating from the reign of Rameses II, extol the wisdom of DHwty, linking him to the divine knowledge sought by the followers of imn-ra. ​ This text reflects the reverence for DHwty’s intellectual legacy.

    • The hymns are from the 52nd regnal year of Rameses II.
    • They emphasize DHwty’s role in wisdom and knowledge.

    The Tale of Setna II and DHwty’s Magic

    The Tale of Setna II narrates the adventures of a prince seeking DHwty’s magical book, illustrating the dangers of violating sacred spaces and the consequences of seeking forbidden knowledge.

    • The story involves the quest for a powerful book of magic.
    • It highlights the repercussions of stealing DHwty’s knowledge.

    Hermeticism and DHwty’s Legacy

    Hermetic texts, attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, reflect DHwty’s syncretism with Greek philosophy and emphasize his enduring influence on various philosophical movements throughout history. ​

    • Hermes Trismegistus is a syncretic deity combining DHwty and Hermes.
    • Hermeticism flourished during the Graeco-Roman period and influenced later philosophical thought.

    Hymn to DHwty from PetOsiris’ Tomb ​

    A hymn from PetOsiris’s tomb praises DHwty as the master of knowledge and guidance, emphasizing the importance of following his teachings for a prosperous life.

    • The hymn highlights DHwty’s role as a guide and protector.
    • It underscores the significance of mAat and ethical living in ancient Egyptian culture. ​

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  • Ancient Egyptian Literature – The Battle of Kadesh

    Ancient Egyptian Literature – The Battle of Kadesh

    In this episode of Ancient Egyptian Literature, we are delving into the Battle of Kadesh, a monumental military action between Rameses the Great and the Hittites. Two versions of this story appear in ancient Egypt. The first, the official report, also called the bulletin, with seven copies found, and the second, dubbed the Poem of pntAwrt, with eight copies, are found inscribed, sometimes side by side, at the Ramesseum, Rameses’ funerary temple, the temple of Amun at Karnak, Abydos, and Abu Simbel.

    The Battle of Kadesh was a significant military conflict between Rameses II (Rameses the Great) of Egypt and the Hittites, led by King Mutawallis, in 1275 BCE. ​ It occurred near the fortified city of Kadesh in northern Syria, a strategic location contested by Egypt and Hatti for centuries due to its importance in controlling the Syrian plain. ​

    Rameses II aimed to reclaim territories in the Levant that had been lost to the Hittites during earlier dynasties. ​ He assembled a large army of 20,000 men, divided into four divisions (Amun, Ra, Ptah, and Seth), and marched northward. ​ Aware of Rameses’ ambitions, the Hittites organized a massive army of allied states, numbering up to 37,000 infantry and 3,700 chariots. ​

    Hittite spies misled Rameses into believing the enemy was far away in Aleppo, but the Hittite forces were concealed behind Kadesh. As Rameses camped with the Division of Amun, the Hittites launched a surprise attack on the Division of Ra, causing chaos and retreat. ​ The Hittite chariots advanced toward Rameses’ camp, scattering the Division of Amun. ​

    Despite being surrounded and abandoned by much of his army, Rameses rallied his elite chariotry and fought back, turning the tide of the battle. ​ Reinforcements from the elite unit “nfrw” arrived and helped crush the Hittite forces. ​ Mutawallis sent a second wave of troops, but were defeated as they attempted to plunder Rameses’ camp.

    Ultimately, Rameses regrouped his forces and prepared for a counterattack, prompting Mutawallis to request an armistice. ​ Rameses agreed and returned to Egypt, but the Hittites later retook the city of Amurru, undoing Egypt’s earlier gains. ​

    The battle is notable for its detailed accounts left by Rameses, including the “Official Report” and the “Poem of Pentawer,” which glorify his role in the conflict. ​ While the battle ended inconclusively, it demonstrated Rameses’ military prowess and marked a pivotal moment in Egyptian-Hittite relations. ​

    Patreon patrons receive the full 54-minute episode, which includes a complete dramatic retelling of the texts and an accompanying discussion of Rameses’ armies, the battle, and surrounding events. They also receive a 26-page illustrated eBook with discussion, maps, a glossary, and access to peer-reviewed reference materials from the Par Madja’at—House of Ancient Egyptian Books.

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  • Ancient Egyptian Days Above the Year and New Year Festivals Announcement

    Ancient Egyptian Days Above the Year and New Year Festivals Announcement

    Our festival reenactments for the hrw Hryw rnpt and wpt rnpt begin July 14 at approximately 8 AM PDT on YouTube Live. Subscribe to our channel and click the notification bell to be alerted when we are live. Follow our social media for official schedules.

  • Myths and Legends of Ancient Egypt: The Book of Knowing the Creations of Ra

    Myths and Legends of Ancient Egypt: The Book of Knowing the Creations of Ra

    The Book of Knowing the Creations of Ra is an ancient Egyptian creation myth that narrates the self-creation of Ra, the sun god, and his role in forming the universe. ​ Ra, also known as Khepra (the scarab beetle of creation), describes his emergence during the sp tpy (First Occasion), the moment of creation. He creates his children, Shu (the lower sky/atmosphere) and Tefnut (sky moisture), through self-insemination and spitting them out. ​ Ra’s bA spirit manifests as Heka (magic), the creative force of the universe, which is invoked in rituals but not inherently present in humans. ​

    Ra continues to create primeval beings from the nnw (primeval waters) and plans further creations using his Eye, representing the physical sun. ​ His children form the Great Ennead (nine deities worshipped at Heliopolis), including Geb (earth), Nut (sky), Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis, and Nephthys, who further populate the world. ​

    The text transitions into the ritual destruction of App (Apophis), a primeval serpent embodying uncreation and chaos (isft), which threatens the cosmic balance (mAat). ​ Seth defeats App nightly, who spears him to protect Ra’s sun boat during its journey through the dwAt (netherworld). ​ App is imprisoned by Akr, a deity of the horizon, and consumed by the Glorious Eye of Ra, which destroys his bA (spirit), Dt (body), Swyt (shadow), and Heka.

    The myth emphasizes the constant battle between creation and uncreation, the interconnected spirits (bA, kA, Dt), and the importance of maintaining cosmic balance (mAat). ​ The text is part of the Bremner Rhind Papyrus, dated 312-311 BCE, and includes other rituals and hymns. It reflects the rich mythology and spiritual beliefs of ancient Egypt. ​

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  • Beginning of Time ~ End of Eternity – Calendar of Ancient Egypt: Introduction to the Ancient Egyptian Calendar

    Beginning of Time ~ End of Eternity – Calendar of Ancient Egypt: Introduction to the Ancient Egyptian Calendar

    In the introduction to the ancient Egyptian calendar, you discover the several calendars used by the ancient Egyptians and the celestial or seasonal events that synchronize them. Topics covered include the lunar, solar, cosmic, and regnal calendars, as well as the so-called horoscope calendar of lucky and unlucky days. It provides an in-depth overview of the Egyptian religious and civil calendars, their structure, significance, and associated festivities. The episode explores the Sothic Cycle, an ancient Egyptian astronomical system used to track time based on the heliacal rising of the star Sirius (Sothis). ​

    The episode explores the connection between the Egyptian calendar and astronomical phenomena, particularly the heliacal rising of Sirius. ​ It discusses the Egyptian year, which consisted of 365 days and receded one day every four years compared to the Julian year, forming a cycle of 1461 years known as the Sothic cycle. ​ The author examines historical records, inscriptions, and calculations to analyze the alignment of the Egyptian calendar with the rising of Sirius and the implications for dating events.

    The ancient Egyptian calendar evolved from natural observations to a fixed system, reflecting both practical needs and cultural traditions. ​ Its endurance highlights the interplay between astronomy, agriculture, and societal organization in ancient Egypt. ​

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  • Par Madja’at Ancient Egyptian House of Books Episode 1

    Par Madja’at Ancient Egyptian House of Books Episode 1

    This episode reviews the book Fighting Pharaohs: Weapons and Warfare in Ancient Egypt by Robert B. Partridge, which explores the military history of ancient Egypt, detailing the weapons, strategies, and battles that shaped the kingdom’s power. The book examines the evolution of Egyptian warfare, from early conflicts to the sophisticated military campaigns of the New Kingdom. It covers the use of chariots, bows, spears, and swords, as well as the role of pharaohs as military leaders. The text also discusses fortifications, naval warfare, and the influence of foreign technology on Egyptian military advancements. You can find more details here.,

    The journal article “Notes on the Opening of the Mouth” by T. J. C. Baly examines the ancient Egyptian Opening of the Mouth ritual, a funerary ceremony intended to restore the senses and vitality of the deceased. The text critically analyzes previous interpretations of the ritual, discussing its symbolic connection to rebirth, the Horus Eye, and the transition to the afterlife. Baly explores the role of the Sem priest, the use of sacred implements, and the ritual’s connection to funerary rites involving the Tekenu figure. His work provides a scholarly foundation for further studies on Egyptian religious practices. You can find more details here, as well as research on the Web, in the Giza Digital Library: The Giza Mastabas Series.

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  • Ramesses the Great Smiting Enemies with Battle Axe

    Ramesses the Great Smiting Enemies with Battle Axe

    New merchandise at our Wtjasat Har Goods store featuring great Pharaoh Ramesses II. Check it out!

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  • The Palermo Stone

    The Palermo Stone

    Archaeological Origin

    Palermo stone recto side (Image: Hsu, 2010)

    The Palermo Stone named after the city in Italy where it is currently in residence, this artifact is a fragment of a larger stele named by Egyptologists as the Royal Annals of the Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt. The aforementioned stele contains a list of the rulers of the united Two Lands of ancient Egypt from the first dynasty to the mid fifth dynasty, along with some of the significant events of their reigns. The stele also contains the names of rulers of the pre-unification era, and going back to legendary and mythical rulers. The record even includes the rulers of the mythical time when the deities were in the seen world and ruled the land, going back to the Memphite creator deity PtaH, and successor Rع. This gives a particular clue as to the possible syncretism and geographical origin of the stele.

    Palermo stone verso side (Image: Hsu, 2010)

    Currently the origins of the Palermo fragment are unknown, along with the others of the seven found fragments of the original stele. Theories about the stele all remain in controversy. Its age, location and even whether they are all part of the same stele are under debate. One theory is that given its record ends in the fifth dynasty it is indeed from the Old Kingdom. Another is it may be a copy of the original Old Kingdom work from the twenty fifth dynasty. However the theological record of the mythical era should be taken into account. The pharaohs of the Old Kingdom were centric to the theology of Heliopolis, where Ra the Sun was the force of creation. The Memphite Theology however puts the mummified human deity of Ptah at the head of creation, and Ra coming forth as his creation. This syncretism of theologies started to occur around the first dynasty, when the rulers established the Nome of Inabw Hadj (Walls of White), the fortress of Menes, as Men Nefer (endures beautifully), the capitol of the naswt bitya (of Sedge and Bee) ruler of the Two Lands. This fact also makes for more argument as then it could have had its beginnings in the first dynasty and the stela added to as time went on. Analyses of the hieroglyphs indicate it is not in the original Old Kingdom or even soon after.

    Description and Content

    Palermo stone fitted with other fragments of the Royal Annals of Old Kingdom Egypt (Image: Lundström, 2010)

    The Palermo fragment is approximately 43.5 cm high, 25 cm wide and 6.5 cm thick. The recto inscription consists of 6 horizontal registers of Old Kingdom hieroglyphics. The first register lists the names of predynastic bityw (rulers) of maHan (Lower Egypt), which is indicated by the seated man hieroglyph wearing the dashrat (Red Crown). The second register inscribes the final year a First Dynasty naswt bitya, whom is generally assumed to be either Narmer or Aha. The rest of the register contains the first nine annual entries for his successor, again not named on the fragment, but assumed to be either Aha or Djer. The recto inscription continues with royal annals onto the naswt bitya of the Fourth Dynasty.

    The registers continue on the verso, inscribing events during the reigns of rulers down to Neferirkare Kakai, the third ruler of the Fifth Dynasty. It is not known whether the Royal Annals originally continued beyond this point in time. If the ruler is named, the name of his mother is also included. Content includes measurements of the height of the annual inundation of the Nile, details of Sed and other festivals, grain tax collected, monuments, architecture, and warfare.

    Seti and Ramesses offering to the Pharaohs
    Click to Return to the Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt

    References

    Hsu, S.-W. (2010). The Palermo Stone: the Earliest Royal Inscription from Ancient Egypt. Altoriental. Forsch., 37(1), 68–89. http://www.ancientportsantiques.com/wp-content/uploads/Documents/PLACES/Egypt-Libya/PalermoStone-Hsu2010.pdf

    Lundström, P. (2010). The Royal Annals of Egypt. File:The Royal Annals of Egypt.png. Wikipedia. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Royal_Annals_of_Egypt.png.

    Lundström, P. (2017, October 3). Other king lists of Ancient Egypt. Pharaoh.se. https://pharaoh.se/other-king-lists.

  • Myths and Legends of Ancient Egypt – Judgment of Horus and Seth

    Myths and Legends of Ancient Egypt – Judgment of Horus and Seth

    The Judgment of Horus and Seth, also known as the Contendings of Horus and Seth, is an ancient Egyptian myth that recounts the story of the gods’ struggle for the throne of Egypt following the death of Osiris. The conflict between Horus, Osiris’ son, and Seth, Osiris’ brother, lasted for decades and involved numerous trials and contests to determine who was the rightful ruler.

    Key Events

    • After Seth murdered Osiris, Horus claimed the throne as his birthright, but Seth argued that he was stronger and more capable of ruling.
    • The gods of the Ennead, led by Ra, acted as judges in the dispute.
    • Horus and Seth engaged in various competitions, including boat races, wrestling matches, and magical duels.
    • At one point, Seth attempted to humiliate Horus by assaulting him, but Horus’ mother, Isis, intervened.
    • The gods debated for years, with some supporting Seth and others favoring Horus.
    • Eventually, Osiris himself intervened from the afterlife, demanding justice for his son.
    • The gods finally ruled in favor of Horus, declaring him the rightful king of Egypt.

    This myth was significant in Egyptian culture because it reinforced the idea of divine kingship, legitimizing the rule of pharaohs as descendants of Horus. It also symbolized the eternal struggle between order (Ma’at) and chaos, with Horus representing stability and Seth embodying disorder.

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  • Ancient Egyptian Literature – The Book of Thoth

    Ancient Egyptian Literature – The Book of Thoth

    The Book of Thoth refers to various ancient Egyptian texts attributed to Thoth, the god of writing, wisdom, and magic. It is often described as containing all knowledge of laws, magic, nature, and the afterlife.

    Origins and Mythology

    The Book of Thoth is a figure in Egyptian mythology, particularly in a story about Prince Neferkaptah, who stole the book from its hidden location at the bottom of the Nile near Coptos. The book was locked inside a series of boxes guarded by serpents. After retrieving it, Neferkaptah suffered divine punishment—his wife and son were killed, and he eventually took his own life.

    Contents and Significance

    • The book was said to contain two powerful spells:
    1. One allowed the reader to understand the speech of animals.
    2. The other granted the ability to perceive the gods themselves.
    • Egyptian priests attributed many writings to Thoth, believing he was the source of all knowledge.
    • Some texts associated with the Book of Thoth discuss scribal work, sacred animals, and the Duat (the realm of the dead).

    The Book of Thoth remains a fascinating part of Egyptian mythology, symbolizing hidden wisdom and the dangers of seeking forbidden knowledge.

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